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World History Class 03

Previous Class Topic

  • The second Buddhist council and the resulting split into two main branches of Buddhism.
  • Initial discussion on the evolution and branches of Buddhism.

Third Buddhist Council (250 BC)

  • Held at Pāṭaliputra in 250 BC.
  • Patronized by Emperor Ashoka, who sought to address divisions in Buddhism.
  • Presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa, identified here as Ashoka’s brother and a Buddhist monk.
  • Recognized Theravada as the original school of Buddhism, removing those deemed heretical.
  • Led to the compilation of the third text, the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, which stores philosophical interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings.
  • The three Piṭakas—Sutta, Vinaya, and Abhidhamma—together became the Tipiṭaka, regarded as the most authoritative Buddhist canon.
  • Ashoka began sending Buddhist missions beyond India, notably dispatching Mahindra and Saṅghamitrā to Sri Lanka.
  • The Bodhi tree sapling was also sent to Sri Lanka and planted at Anurādhapura, which would later be crucial when the original tree in Bodh Gayā was destroyed.

Ashoka’s Role in Spreading Buddhism

  • Ashoka appointed Dhammamahamatyas to propagate Buddhism and promote moral conduct.
  • Missions reached regions of East, Southeast, and Central Asia.
  • Despite Buddhism’s decline in India, it survived abroad largely thanks to these initiatives.
  • Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, and other regions continue to have vibrant Theravāda traditions.

Fourth Buddhist Council (78 AD)

  • Occurred at Kuṇḍalvana in Kashmir around 78 AD.
  • Patronized by King Kaniṣka at the onset of his reign.
  • Initially presided over by Vasumitra; later overseen by Aśvaghoṣa.
  • Key compilation: the Mahāvibhāṣā, a vast encyclopedic work of Buddhist doctrines.
  • Solidified a marked division in Buddhism, where one group was labeled Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”) and the earlier school was dubbed Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle,” often identified with Theravāda).

Differences Between Hinayana and Mahayana

Core Distinctions

  • View of the Buddha
    • Hinayana: Regards the Buddha as a great teacher.
    • Mahayana: Deifies the Buddha and practices his worship.
  • Idol Worship
    • Hinayana: No idol worship.
    • Mahayana: Engages in idol worship and visual reverence.
  • Languages Used
    • Hinayana: Primarily in Pāli and Prakrit.
    • Mahayana: Includes Sanskrit, alongside Pāli and Prakrit.
  • Nirvāṇa and Bodhisattvas
    • Hinayana: Focuses on individual emancipation (Nirvāṇa).
    • Mahayana: Emphasizes universal enlightenment, aided by Bodhisattvas who postpone their own final release to help all beings.

Bodhisattva Concept

  • Individuals capable of attaining Nirvāṇa but choose repeated rebirth to guide others.
  • Maitreya is cited as a future Buddha, symbolizing compassion and the vow to liberate all sentient beings.
  • Bodhisattvas eventually reach Buddhahood after assisting countless beings.

Important Early Sects of Buddhism

  • Early classifications mention sects like Sammatiya, Sarvāstivāda, Vibhajyavāda, Vaibhāṣika, Mādhyamika, and Yogācāra.
  • Sarvāstivāda, in particular, was considered among the most influential.

Mahayana’s Development in Southern India

  • Developed especially in the Deccan regions, including Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Dhāraṇikoṭa, and Dhanyakaṭaka.
  • Mahayana remains the largest branch of Buddhism worldwide, with approximately half of all Buddhists following Mahayana traditions.

Vajrayana Buddhism

Emergence and Spread

  • Developed in the 8th–9th centuries AD in the Mahāvihāras of Bihar and Bengal (Nālandā, Vikramaśilā, Uddaṇḍapura).
  • Influential teachers included Atīśa Dīpaṅkara and Guru Padmasambhava.

Key Features

  • Incorporates Tantra Sādhana practices, aligning closely with the tantric features found in certain Hindu traditions.
  • Devotion extended to female deities such as Tārā, Mahamāyūrī, and Akṣobhya.
  • Emphasizes mysticism and esoteric rituals.

Transmission to Tibet

  • Guru Padmasambhava took Vajrayāna teachings northward from eastern India into Tibet.
  • Tibetan cultural practices of nature and spirit worship syncretized with these traditions, forming a local variant often referred to as Kālacakrayāna.
  • Various sects (e.g., Gelugpa) arose, with the Dalai Lama recognized within these Vajrayāna-influenced schools.

Largest Buddhist Populations

  • Some countries (Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka) have high percentages of Buddhists.
  • By sheer population, China has the largest number of Buddhists, though official policy tends toward atheism.
  • Within China, many individuals engage privately in Buddhist-influenced traditions, such as ancestor worship and Taoist practices.

Metaphysical Thoughts in Buddhism

Origin of the Universe

  • Buddhism does not posit a divine or creator deity for universal origins.
  • The universe is seen as emerging from natural principles rather than a Supreme Being.

View on God

  • The Buddha is regarded as agnostic regarding the existence of a fundamental God or gods.
  • Absence of empirical proof leads to neither affirmation nor denial.

Stance on the Veda

  • The Vedic tradition is not considered divinely authoritative in Buddhism.
  • Core teachings remain independent of any scriptural “reveal” from a higher power.

Rebirth and Soul

  • Strong belief in rebirth, motivating the pursuit of Nirvāṇa to halt the cycle of suffering.
  • Denies an eternal soul (ātman); instead, a “panch skandha” or set of karmic memories transmigrates across lives.
  • Liberation is seen as achieving cessation of desire, resulting in the end of these cycles.

Decline of Buddhism in India

Shift in Patronage and Monastic Corruption

  • Monastic communities in some regions became affluent and distant from core ascetic principles.
  • Corruption among monks and involvement in secular matters led to disfavor among patrons.

Linguistic and Ritual Changes

  • Sanskritization within Mahayana circles made teachings less accessible to local populations who spoke Prakrit or Pāli.
  • Complex rituals and branching contributed to doctrinal dilution.

Hindu Reforms and Assimilation

  • During the Gupta period, Hinduism reemerged with reduced animal sacrifices and greater emphasis on Bhakti (devotion).
  • Temples and Purāṇic literature strengthened Hindu institutional structures.
  • Buddhism was absorbed conceptually when the Buddha was portrayed as a ninth incarnation of Viṣṇu in certain Purāṇa traditions.
  • Resulted in Buddhism’s gradual loss of a distinct identity within India.

Opposing Caste and Societal Preferences

  • Buddhism’s challenge to caste distinctions provoked resistance from firm supporters of the varṇa system.
  • Aggressive missionary activity by some groups spurred further backlash from certain societal segments.

Destruction of Monasteries

  • Medieval invasions, particularly the destruction of Nālandā University by forces of the Delhi Sultanate, accelerated the decline.
  • Fear of further attacks prompted groups of monks and nuns to leave for Tibet and Southeast Asia, where Buddhism endured and evolved.

Transition to Jainism

(Transition detailing a move to Jain philosophical discussions.)

Jainism: Origins and Tirthankaras

Ancient Roots

  • Considered an older religion than Buddhism, associated with 24 Tīrthaṅkaras who guide others across the cycle of birth and death.
  • Ādinātha (R̥ṣabhadeva) is revered as the first Tīrthaṅkara.
  • The earliest 22 Tīrthaṅkaras are regarded as largely mythological, while the last two—Pārśvanātha and Vardhamāna Mahāvīra—are considered historical.

Pārśvanātha (23rd Tīrthaṅkara)

  • Born in Kāśī (Vārāṇasī) to King Aśvasena.
  • Left home at age 30 to seek enlightenment.
  • Meditated on Pārśvanātha hill and attained kevalajñāna (absolute knowledge), also termed kaivalya in Jainism.
  • Four of the five major pledges of Jainism were in place by his time.

Vardhamāna Mahāvīra (24th Tīrthaṅkara)

Early Life

  • Born in Kuṇḍagrāma, Vaiśālī (Bihār) around 540 BC (dates vary in some sources).
  • Father: Siddhārtha; Mother: Tṛśalā (sister of King Chetaka of the Licchavīs).
  • Grew up in the Kṣatriya community and was married to Yaśodā, with a daughter named Anurjaya (sometimes cited as Priyadarśikā).

Path to Kaivalya

  • Renounced worldly life at age 30, adopting the Śramaṇa tradition.
  • Practiced extreme austerities, even discarding clothing in harsh climates.
  • After a decade of wandering, reached Jr̥ṃbhakagrāma by the R̥jubālikā River at age 40.
  • Meditated under a sāl tree, attaining perfect knowledge (kevalajñāna or kaivalya).

Title of “Jina”

  • After enlightenment, followers hailed him as Jina (conqueror of attachments).
  • His community became known as Jainas, marking the formalized identity of Jainism.

Panchānuvrata (Five Vows)

  • By Mahāvīra’s time, five core vows (Anuvrata) were clarified, with the last one especially attributed to him:
    • Ahiṃsā (Non-violence)
    • Satya (Truthfulness)
    • Asteya (Non-stealing)
    • Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness)
    • Brahmacharya (Celibacy)

Triratna of Jainism

  • Samyak Jñāna (Right Knowledge)
  • Samyak Śraddhā (Right Faith)
  • Samyak Cāritra (Right Conduct)

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

Upcoming discussion on the Jain Councils and their historical significance.