VisionIAS - Video Classroom Lecture

Modern Indian History Class 04

Previous Class Topic

Completion of discussions on the Nagpur Session and associated resolutions.

Understanding Gandhi’s Organizational Approach

Mahatma Gandhi’s Focus on Organization

Emphasis on controlled mass movements requiring prior planning.
Clear instructions given for each phase, with timelines (e.g., one year of non-cooperation, then civil disobedience if needed).
Advocacy of the “struggle–truce–struggle” pattern, where negotiation alternates with active movements.

Reasons for the Title “Mahatma”

His organizational skill: mobilizing different sections and making them aware of protest guidelines.
Priority always given to nationalism over other considerations (e.g., refusing to condemn certain speeches that risked dividing leadership).

Key Events from 1921 to Early 1922

Tilak Swaraj Fund

Initiated by Gandhi to finance the freedom struggle, collecting about one crore rupees.
Recognition that any political movement needs substantial resources.

Gandhi–Reading Talks (1921–1926)

Aim: Negotiations with Viceroy Reading to extract concessions and possibly avert a British crackdown.
Talks failed when the British insisted Gandhi condemn the Ali brothers’ speeches that allegedly incited violence.
Gandhi refused, prioritizing unity in the struggle and avoiding a “divide and rule” trap.

Prince of Wales Visit (November 1921)

Demonstrations by workers and non-cooperators showing black flags.
Clashes occurred between supporters of the visit (e.g., certain landlords, business interests) and protesters.
Gandhi disapproved of the violence and canceled an all-India civil disobedience launch; restricted it to Bardoli in Gujarat only (no-tax campaign).
Emphasis on a controlled approach to avoid mass violence undermining the movement’s nonviolent foundation.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)

In Chauri Chaura (Uttar Pradesh), a police confrontation led to protesters burning a police station, killing 22 policemen.
This act of retaliatory violence prompted Gandhi to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement for the masses.
It underscored Gandhi’s commitment to nonviolence: once violence erupted, the movement was ended at that broad scale.

Differentiation Between Withdrawing the Mass Movement and Congress Actions

Gandhi canceled mass-level non-cooperation but the Indian National Congress (INC) continued boycotting legislatures.

Ongoing debates arose in Congress (1922–1923):

“Pro-changers” (Swarajists) wanted to contest elections under the new constitutional framework.
“No-changers” stayed loyal to Gandhi, preferring to continue the boycott of councils and keep non-cooperation in place at the political level.

Outcomes and Consequences of the Non-Cooperation Movement

Organizational Impact and Participation

Organization and mass mobilization: More systematic than earlier Swadeshi attempts, with better instructions from Gandhi.
Significant participation by diverse social groups:
- Peasants (merging local agrarian struggles with the national cause).
- Working class (notably during the Prince of Wales visit).
- Tribals (e.g., forest law violations under leaders like Alluri Sitarama Raju).
- Lower castes, as anti-untouchability became a central issue.
- Women, especially in anti-liquor campaigns.

Communal Unity and Setbacks

Initial strong Hindu–Muslim unity (linked to the Khilafat issue).
Incidents like the 1921 Moplah Revolt in Malabar revealed tensions; eventually, communal harmony deteriorated after 1922–24.
The Khilafat Movement ended in 1924 when Turkey abolished the caliph’s political authority, making continuation moot.

Economic Boycott

More successful than earlier boycotts in 1905.
Affected British imports significantly, showing improved organizing.
However, practical limitations existed—khadi was expensive for the poor, and many capitalists hesitated due to profit motives.

Positive Developments

Repeal of the Rowlatt Act in March 1922.
Rising INC influence in previously less-active regions (e.g., the North-West Frontier Province).
Expansion of leadership pool: emergence of major regional figures like Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Jawaharlal Nehru.
Strengthening of social reform campaigns (e.g., Akali Movement in Punjab from 1920 to 1925), blending religious reform demands with nationalist objectives.

Withdrawal, Training, and Future Movements

Gandhi advocated a pause (sometimes referred to as “suspension”) before future civil disobedience.
Recognized that the masses needed better training in nonviolent discipline, evident from incidents such as Chauri Chaura.

Rise of Revolutionary Movements

Early Revolutionary Activity (1907–1911)

Emerged in the wake of the Swadeshi upsurge’s decline after the 1907 Surat Split.
Secret societies (e.g., Mitra Mela, renamed Abhinav Bharat by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar) sought direct action.
Individual heroic actions targeted oppressive British officers, inspired youth, and highlighted vulnerabilities in British rule.

Notable Cases

Muzaffarpur Conspiracy (1908): Attempted assassination of Judge Kingsford by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki.
Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908): Aurobindo Ghosh and others arrested for alleged involvement with bomb-making; some exiled or withdrew from active politics.

Developments Abroad

Indian revolutionaries used foreign bases (e.g., London, Paris) for coordination and procuring arms, given British surveillance in India.
Shyamji Krishna Varma and Bhikaji Cama supported initiatives like India House in London.
Savarkar popularized Mazzini’s ideas, translating them into Marathi and emphasizing modern nationalism.

The Gadar Movement (1913–1915)

Context

Initiated by Indians, especially Punjabis, abroad in the U.S. and Canada.
Gadar newspaper published nationalist content, inspiring returnees to India to foment rebellion.
Influenced by prior revolutionary attempts (e.g., bomb attacks in Delhi on Viceroy Hardinge in 1912).

Komagata Maru Incident 1914

Ship carrying Indian immigrants to Canada was refused entry, and ordered to return to India, aggravating nationalist anger.
Some of these aggrieved passengers, and others abroad, perceived World War I as a chance to spark a mass uprising at home.
British authorities used the Defense of India Act (1915) to detain many Gadar activists.

Outcome of Gadar movement:

The planned mutiny in India largely failed due to robust intelligence networks and limited local support.
Despite failure, the Gadarites’ sacrifices became a rallying point, influencing later revolutionary groups.

Shift Back to Broader Nonviolent Mobilization and New Revolutionary Phases

From Home Rule to Non-Cooperation

Home Rule League (1916–1918) filled the vacuum after earlier upheavals.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) followed.
A lull (1922–1924) emerged after Non-Cooperation was withdrawn due to Chauri Chaura; revolutionaries again took the lead in certain areas.

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA), 1924

Formed by figures such as Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and others.
“Republic” indicated a modern, democratic aspiration.
Kakori Robbery (1925): an attempted train robbery to secure funds, leading to many arrests and hangings.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), 1928

Emphasized a socialist perspective, reflecting growing leftist influences post-1917 Russian Revolution.
Leaders included Bhagat Singh, who combined Marxist thought with fervent nationalism.

Major Actions

Lahore Conspiracy (1928): Reaction to Lala Lajpat Rai’s death during protests against the Simon Commission.
Assembly Bombing (1929): Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt threw non-lethal bombs to protest bills reducing civil rights; they courted arrest to spread their message through court trials.

Bhagat Singh’s Ideology and Legacy

Advocated reading political literature in jail, turning prison into a space for ideological preparation.
Led hunger strikes to protest inhumane conditions, with the martyrdom of Jatin Das on the 64th day of fasting.
Rejected petitions for mercy, seeing himself not as a criminal but as a revolutionary.
Execution in March 1931 (with Sukhdev and Rajguru) elevated him to a prominent martyr’s status.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930) and the Chittagong Armoury Raid

Emergence of a Broader Campaign

Gandhi launched the Salt March or Dandi March to begin the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Regional responses varied, with many areas incorporating local forms of defiance.

Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930–1934)

Led by Surya Sen and his group, the Indian Republican Army (IRA) in Chittagong.
Objectives: seize arms from the British armoury and cut off Chittagong’s communication lines.
Marked a shift from isolated actions to a group-based insurrection.
Participants understood it could be a suicide mission, showing high commitment to direct revolt against British control.

The Simon Commission (1927–1928)

Establishment and Purpose

Also called the Indian Statutory Commission, set up two years earlier than planned to review constitutional progress.
The absence of any Indian member caused widespread opposition, violating the principle of self-determination.
Indian Secretary of State Birkenhead challenged Indian leaders to draft their own constitutional proposals.

All Parties Conference and Nehru Report (1928)

In response to the commission’s exclusionary nature, Indian leaders formed the All Party Conference (APC).
Motilal Nehru oversaw a committee producing principles for a future constitution, known as the Nehru Report.
Between 1927 and 1928, anti-Simon protests swept the country, leading to confrontation in Lahore where Lala Lajpat Rai succumbed to injuries from a lathi charge.

Escalation of Protest and Revolutionary Reaction

Rai’s death fueled actions by HSRA revolutionaries, culminating in further conspiracies to avenge him.
Broader dissatisfaction with the Simon Commission intensified calls for more radical measures.

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

Further analysis of constitutional debates following the Simon Commission.
Detailed exploration of subsequent political developments leading toward the Civil Disobedience phase and later events.