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Ancient and Mediaeval History Class 02

Previous Class Topic

  • Overview of the early Chalcolithic culture
  • Initial socio-religious practices and parallels with the Indus Valley Civilization

Chalcolithic Culture

Settlement Patterns and Economic Activities

  • Predominantly rural character, yet some parallels with the Indus Valley in livelihood.
  • Lifestyle focused on agriculture and animal husbandry.

Pottery

  • Often referred to as the culture of potteries.
  • Notable continuity with Indus Valley pottery, such as ochre-colored pottery, red pottery with black designs, and other varieties like black pottery with red designs.
  • Regional variety:
    • Swat and Jorwe regions primarily used ochre-colored pottery.
    • Northern parts favored red ware and polychrome (multicolored).

Socio-Religious Practices

  • Continuation of worship traditions seen in the Indus Valley, including reverence for mother goddesses, various male deities, and nature deities.
  • Strong belief in the afterlife, indicated by the placement of goods with the deceased.

Death Rituals

  • Shifts in burial orientations showing a developed directional sense.
    • Southern Chalcolithic sites frequently used an east–south or east–west direction for burials.
    • Northern Chalcolithic sites had variable orientation (such as east–west and north–south).
  • Some corpses had their feet severed, possibly to prevent spirits from re-entering the realm of the living.

Sinauli Excavations

  • Recent site in the Baghpat district (Western Uttar Pradesh).
  • Excavations began in 2005, revealing pottery, coffins, and two chariots.
    • These two horse-driven chariots are believed to date from a period after the Chalcolithic, likely post-Aryan advent.

Advent of Aryans in India

Central Asian Origin and Migration

  • By around 1500 BCE, multiple nomadic tribes from Central Asia and the vast steppes grasslands began migrating into the Indian subcontinent.
  • Collectively referred to as Aryans, signifying a linguistic community, not a racial group.
  • Consisted of various tribes from areas that now include regions like Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan.

Language and Phonemic Similarity

  • The Aryans spoke distinct tribal languages that shared phonemic (sound) similarity.
  • Early forms of Sanskrit emerged from these linguistic interactions, later evolving into a new Sanskrit in India.

Use of Horses and Bronze Tools

  • Horses were central to the Aryans’ nomadic culture and critical to military success.
  • Introduced horse-driven chariots, which increased army agility.
  • Employed advanced bronze tools (helmets, mail coats), aiding dominance over indigenous groups in northwestern India.

Composition of Vedas

  • Upon settling in northern India, the Aryans composed the Rigveda, the earliest Veda, in Sanskrit.
  • This composition phase defines the Vedic Period, subdivided into:
    • Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)
    • Later Vedic Period (1000–500 BCE)

Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE)

Geographical Details

  • Early Aryan settlements concentrated in north and northwestern India, referred to as Aryavart and Brahmavart.
  • The Rigveda mentions major mountain ranges, including “Himavant Parvat” (Himalayas) and “Jambuvant Parvat.”
  • The Sapta Sindhu (Seven Rivers) included:
    • Sindhu (Indus)
    • Vitasta (Jhelum)
    • Askini (Chenab)
    • Parushni (Ravi)
    • Vipas (Beas)
    • Shutudri (Sutlej)
    • Saraswati (Nadi Tara)
  • The Indus was the most important river; the Saraswati was revered as the most sacred.

Polity

  • Governed by a tribal chieftain known as the Rajan.
  • Primary duty of the Rajan: organize battles to acquire cattle, the main economic resource.
  • Assisted by three main assemblies:
    • Sabha
      • Small in number but included both male and female elders.
      • Most decisive political body consulted on key matters.
    • Samiti
      • Broad in male membership but no female participation.
      • Limited function, mainly involved in the appointment of the Rajan.
    • Vidhata
      • Smaller group yet included both men and women.
      • Oversaw agricultural decisions and religious rituals.

Economy

  • Cattle held paramount economic significance.
  • Multiple Rigvedic words reflected this importance:
    • Gavishthi – search for cows
    • Gopajanya – master of the cow
    • Gavyu – cow
    • Godhuma – wheat (grows in cow dung)
    • Godhuli – a measurement of time at sunset when cows return home
    • Duhitri – milker of cow (daughter)
    • Aghnya – “not to be killed,” highlighting prohibition against cow slaughter under normal circumstances
    • Goghan – distinguished guest (rare occasion where cow meat might be offered)
  • Agriculture: Primary crops included Yava (barley) and Godhuma (wheat).
  • Metals: Familiarity with copper, tin, silver, and gold (called Nishka). Gold was used for ornaments; no widespread coinage in this era, though some references to Karshapana exist.
  • Taxation: No formal system; voluntary contributions known as Bhag (agricultural produce) and Bali (cattle).

Society

  • Organized into Kula (family), Vansha (clan), and Jana (tribe).
  • Family (Kula) was the core unit, led by an eldest male known as the Kulapa.
  • Society was patriarchal but accorded respect to women.
    • Women participated in the Sabha and Vidhata.
    • Lopamudra is cited as an educated female figure.
  • Marriage Practices
    • Child marriage was absent.
    • Widow remarriage (Niyoga Vivaha) permitted, sometimes involving marriage to the deceased husband’s younger brother.
    • Gandharva Vivah (love marriage) was allowed within the same community.
    • Swayamvar granted women autonomy in choosing a spouse.
    • Society tolerated polygamy and rarely practiced polyandry.
  • Slavery
    • Das (Aryans who became slaves after defeat).
    • Dasyu (non-Aryans who became slaves).
    • The Rigveda mentions “Dasyuhatya,” referencing punitive measures against Dasyus.
  • Absence of Strict Varna
    • Society was not yet systematized into rigid varnas.
    • Professions existed within a single family (e.g., a father might be a physician, a mother a corn grinder, and a son a poet).
    • A later stage saw these professional distinctions evolve into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.

Religious Practices

  • Characterized by the personification of nature, attributing divine identities to natural elements.
  • Key Deities
    • Indra (Rain and thunder; also referred to as Purandara or Breaker of Forts).
    • Agni (Fire; intermediary serving as a messenger to other gods).
    • Varun (Waters; upholder of cosmic balance).
    • Mitra (Air or wind).
    • Pushan (Animals).
    • Surya (Sun).
  • Female Deities
    • Usha (Dawn).
    • Savitri (Daylight).
    • Aditi (Mother of the Sun).
    • Ila (Notable early figure).
    • Gayatri Mantra composed in honor of the Sun God and goddess Savitri.
  • Mode of Worship
    • Recitation of mantras and prayers.
    • Ritual sacrifices using Agni as the intermediary.

Later Vedic Period (1000–500 BCE)

Geographical Shifts

  • Aryan settlements spread further east.
  • Regions were termed Purva Khanda (east), Madhya Desh (central), and Dakshinapatha (south).
  • Rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna gain prominence in texts, while the Sadanira (Gandak) is notably referenced more extensively.

Economy

  • Emergence of the term Rashtra (territory), indicating a shift to land-centric polities.
  • The primary pursuit of the Rajan became territorial expansion, focusing on fertile lands for agriculture.
  • Agricultural Production
    • Increased emphasis on cultivating Vrihi (rice), which now surpassed barley and wheat in importance.
    • Rice also entered emerging Vedic rituals.
  • Taxes: Continued informally through voluntary contributions of Bhag (produce) and Bali (cattle). No formalized taxation system yet.

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class:

  • Ritual sacrifices in the Later Vedic polity, including Ashvamedha, Vajapeya, and Rajasuya.
  • Further aspects of Later Vedic society, especially the concept of Gotra.

Quick Revision Notes not available in this class.